戴炜栋 Linguistics·Phonology_思维导图模板

Chapter 2
Phonology

2.1 The phonic medium of language

2.2 Phonetics

2.2.1 What is phonetics?

The definition of phonetics

Phonetics is defined as the study of phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.

Three branches of phonetics（考点：名词解释、区分三大领域）

articulatory phonetics

It studies the sounds from the speaker's point of view

i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.

auditory phonetics

It looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view.

i.e. how the sounds are perceived by hearer.

acoustic phonetics

it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

2.2.2 Organs of speech

three important areas of the articulatory apparatus of a human being

pharyngeal cavity

voicing: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.

voiced sounds: The sounds produced with causing vibration of vocal cords.

voiceless sounds: The sounds produced without causing vibration of the vocal cords.

oral cavity

The speech organs located in this cavity are: the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.

还要能看着图上的标志，认出其器官的英文写法

nasal cavity

2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds-broad and narrow transcriptions

International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA) came into being at the end of the 19th century. It provided two ways to transcribe speech sounds.

diacritics

are added to letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possibly do.

broad transcription

the transcription with letter-symbols only, which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes./ a /

narrow transcription

the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, which is needed and used by the phoenicians in their study of speech sounds.[ a ]

clear [ l ]: The [ l ] in [ li:f ], occurring before a vowel and no diacritic is needed to indicate it.

dark [ l ]: The [ l ] in [ fi:l ] and [ bild ], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [ l ] as in leaf, and in narrow transcription the diacritic tilde [ ~ ] is used to indicate it.

dental [ l ]: In the sound combination [ helθ], the sound [ l ] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it, and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ _ ] is used to indicate it.（齿音的表示按照书上所写）

送气音在broad transcription 里不做区别，在narrow transcription 里用一个在右上角的“小h”来表示送气（具体例子看书P18）。送气的：aspirated不送气的：unaspirated

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds（考点：描述给定元音，或者根据描述指出元音或辅音的名称）

An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories

vowels

in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever.

consonants

in the production of a consonant it is obstructed in one way or another.

2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants（2种划分标准）【书P20的表格要会背会默写】

manner of articulation（6种）

stops（3对）

[ p ] [ b ]

[ t ] [ d ]

[ k ] [ g ]

fricatives（9个）

[ f ] [ v ] [ s ] [ z ] [ ʃ ] [ 3 ] [ θ ] [ ð ] [ h ]

affricates（2个）

[ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]

liquids（2个）

[ l ] [ r ]

nasals（3个）

[ m ] [ n ] [ ŋ ]

glides（2个）

[ w ] [ j ]

place of articulation（7种）

bilabial（4个）

[ p ] [ b ] [ m ] [ w ]

labio-dental（2个）

[ f ] [ v ]

dental（2个）

[ θ ] [ ð ]

alveolar（7个）

[ t ] [ s ] [ d ] [ z ] [ n ] [ l ] [ r ]

palatal（5个）

[ ʃ ] [3] [ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]

velar（3个）

[ k ] [ g ] [ ŋ ]

glottal（1个）

[ h ]

2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowels【书P21的图要会背会默写】

monophthong（4种划分标准）

the position of the tongue in the mouth（3种）

front vowels（5个）

[ i: ] [ i ] [ e ] [ æ ] [ a ]

central vowels（3个）

[ ә: ] [ ә ] [ Λ ]

back vowels（5个）

[ u: ] [ u ] [ ɔ: ] [ ɔ ] [ a: ]

the openness of the mouth（4种）

close vowels（3个）

[ i: ] [ i ] [ u ]

semi-close vowels（2个）

[ e ] [ ә: ]

semi-open vowels（2个）

[ ә ] [ ɔ: ]

open vowels（5个）

[ æ ] [ a ] [ Λ ] [ ɔ ] [ a: ]

the shape of the lips（2种）

unrounded

所有前元音和中元音

rounded

除[ a: ]之外的所有后元音

the length of the sound（4种）

long and tense vowels

short and lax vowels

diphthong（8个）

[ ei ] [ ai ] [ ɔi ] [ au ] [ əu ] [ ɪə ] [ eə ] [ ʊə ]

2.3 Phonology

2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics

similarities: Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language - the speech sounds.

differences: They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.

Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone

phone

A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.

phoneme

A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.

phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements.

allophone

The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are.called the allophones of that phoneme, eg. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [ l ] and clear [ l ], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.

2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

phonemic contrast

If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.

eg. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit], [rəʊp] and [rəʊb].

complementary distribution

If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.

eg. clear [l] and dark [l]

minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.

eg. pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, till and kill, kill and dill, and dill and gill. We can conclude that /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ are phonemes in English. Then all these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set.

2.3.4 Some rules in phonology

2.3.4.1 sequential rules

There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, eg. [iblk] is impossible sequential rule.

2.3.4.2 assimilation rule

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, eg. team, bean, green, etc.

2.3.4.3 deletion rule

It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, eg. sign, design.

2.3.5 Suprasegmental features-stress, tone, intonation

suprasegmental features

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

stress

Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.

The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, eg. `import-n. ; im`port-v.

tone

Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.

intonation

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.